The Cultural Studies

 Name – Parmar Shubhda

Roll no – 30

 Submitted to – S.B Gardi

                                  Department of English

                                   MKBU

                 

 What is cultural studies  ?

                                

                The term “culture” has a long and various history, “Cultural studies” itself rather less so , but both have been closely connected with the history of literature. By “culture studies” I mean , again , a particular academic order , that discourse about” culture”, as different from literature which began to develop during the 1960s , originally on the margins of English literature itself. Where English literature had focused notice on one particular kind of culture, high literature , cultural  studies would be concerned in principle with all kind of culture. Culture, according to Willliams, is ‘ one of the two or three most complicated words in the English language.’

              Culture is said to be one of the two or three most complex words in the English language, and the word which is sometimes careful to be its opposite - nature - is commonly awarded the accolade of being the most complex of all .Yet thought it is fashionable these days to see nature as a original from nature .One of its original meaning is husbandry, or the tending of natural growth. The same is true of our words for law and jusices as well as of terms like capital , stock, pecuniary and genuine . The word coulter , which of culture , means the blade of a ploughshare . We derive our word for the finest of human activities from labour and agriculture, crops and development. Francis Bacon writes of’ the culture and manurance of minds, in a suggestive hesitancy between dung and mental distinction’ . Culture here means an activity and it was a long time before the word came to indicate a thing.

                The Latin origin of the word culture is colere, which can mean anything from cultivating and inhabiting to worshipping and protecting. Its meaning as inhabit has evolved from the Latin colonus to the modern colonialism, so that titles like Culture and Colonialism are, once again , kindly tautological .But colere also ends up via the Latin cultus as the religious term cult , just as the idea of culture itself in the modern age comes to substitute itself for a loss sense of spirituality and transcendence .Cultural truths whether high art or the traditions of a people are sometimes afraid ones, to be protected and revered . Culture, then inherits the impressive layer of religious authority, but also has uneasy affinities with occupation and invasion, and it is between these poles, positive and negative , that the concept is presently pitched .Cultural study has developed into a various and lively international intellectual field .

                                              As Stuart Hall, has put it :

“Today , cultural studies programmes exist everywhere , especially in the United States…………..where they’ve come to provide a focal point for interdisciplinary studies and research , and for the development of critical theory.”

                As a field of study , cultural studies has had central effects on the study of literature. It has challenged the idea of canonical literature and affected the way literary texts are theorized and read .It has also give us with a vocabulary for idea about the world we live in. Cultural is food for our brains , and it determines how they function. Culture regiments and guides, imposes trust and inspires. We see this in great cases such as the hypothetical successful , but always see our own cultural life because we are living it as we think about it .Cultural is land where humans are  creative .

              Cultural Studies primarily developed in Britain as a response against specific corrective and political positions . The most important of these were

1. liberal humanism, specifically the cultural and civilization tradition in literary studies

2. orthodox  Maxism Cultural Studies developed as part of an engagement with the New Left in the 1950s and 1960s

3. the mass society thesis and the related tradition of media effects research in mass communications studies .

Here Cultural studies took problem with an impoverished view of culture and agency.

Birth of Cultural Studies:

                       The Birmingham Center for Contemporary Cultural Studies, by Richard Hoggart and Williams in 1964, was well known techniques apply in institutions of higher education and learning. First , it was going to be central for cultural not cultural studies yet existed with noun culture by trying to study culture through its various signifying elements .Secound , it was going to be a centre where various studies were going to be focused upon of one .Thirdly , market indicated that what constituted the shapeless present knowledge in these various disciplines were similarly if not more chief than the well formed past, and fourthly , the preposition for rather than the genitive of modern Cultural Studies .In other words the Birmingham Center of Cultural Studies indicates that it was  in search of a discussion instead of a discourse  being in search of a centre .

Andrew Milner captures the emergence of this new discipline quite succinctly:

“Contemporary cultural studies had emerged from out of literary studies     essentially by way of a very simple move: by shifting attention from an exclusive focus on the canon of high literary texts to an , in principle, inclusive focus on all cultural text .Williams and Hoggart attempted no more than to expand the subject matter of English literature itself to include popular culture .”

                  In the 1970s more grow ways of theorizing the ideological and political role of Cultural Study .In the Cultural Studies major authority of the work of French structuralist, Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci and French semiotician Roland  Barthes . Here althusser’s work lay in its concern with developing a Marxist theory of ideology which was not governed by a narrow economic determinism, but gave comparative autonomy of ideology .According to this theory, cultural is one of numerous ideological state whose meaning and values in the individual. Culture is therefore a locus of class struggle .The organization of subjectivity in culture becomes a central area in Cultural Studies.

                   Cultural Studies was understanding that existing disciplines such as sociology , history and literary studies did not present this method for understanding  culture .Cultural Studies work  on working class writing , popular fiction  and also writing on women, what is valuable and worthy of study .Exclusion question not only of class , but also of race , sexual , colonialism , gender  and orientation .

                                                As Cary Nelson has argued,

‘ Cultural studies is not simply the close analysis of objects other than literary texts .some English department would like to believe that transportable method of close reading can make them cultural studies departments as soon as they expand the range of cultural objects they habitually study….. the immanent , formal , thematic or semiotic analysis of films, painting, songs, romance novels, comic books or clothing style does not , in itself , constitute cultural studies .’

                     Cultural Studies does not involve abandoning what has traditionally been studied in literature departments .It urges latest ways of studying such texts .Cultural Studies is concerned with the struggles over meaning that define the land of culture. It is devoted , to studying the politics of signification .Cultural Studies is dedicated to studying the production , response and various use of texts, their characteristics of internal .

                Cultural Studies began with the study of popular literary forms such as the detective novel and with such daily practices as punk fashion. The examination of the accepted realm, but in theory it also encompasses high culture as well and can , in the form of such visual studies, cover a variety of high culture and popular materials .In point of view of cultural studies the difference between art and the popular becomes insignificant .

               Cultural Studies argues that culture is about meanings a community is not easy process, as those power seek to organize meaning .For this purpose definite forms of art and their meanings are treated as inferior .Cultural study argued that the objects and artefacts that are used made sense of by the masses must be taken seriously .Some forms of art as comic strips or the detective novel made by the people for themselves .Cultural Studies believes that the culture of a community includes different  of aspects like, spatial , economic and political . Cultural Studies therefore aims to include all these in its ambit .Here says how particular objects acquire meaning and value in society.

                The method of cultural studies adapts of analysis from various disciplines, media studies, cultural anthropology, discourse analysis and popular culture. Most of these methods , when appropriated by Cultural Studies  are greatly influenced and informed by the theories . All the cultural forms are linked to institution and the market . Cultural Studies believes that we cannot must be read not only within the aesthetic realm. A novel must be read not only its general conventions and the history of the novel also in terms of the publishing industry .The political of awards the hype publicity machinery that sells the book , but cultural studies project deals with J.K Rowling’s Harry Potter book only for fantasy writing, because public obviously buy Harry Potter book  to got enterprise of it .

Four Goals of Cultural Studies:

1.Cultural studies transcends the confines of a particular discipline such as literary criticism or history .

2. Cultural studies is politically engaged .

3. Cultural studies denies the separation of “high” and “low” or elite and popular culture.

4. Cultural studies analyzes not only the cultural work ,but also the means of production .

1.   Cultural Studies transcends the confiner of a particular discipline such as literacy criticism or history.

               A cultural study is practiced in such journals as critical Inquiry, representation and boundary. Italian Opera, a Latino ‘telenovela’ the architectural styles of prisons, body piercing – and drawing conclusion about the changes in textual phenomena over time-such things are found in these kinds of newspapers cultural studies not basically or really about literature in the traditional sense or even about “Art”. Lawrence Grosberg, cary Nelson, and Paula. Trencher stress that the intellectual promise of cultural studies lies in its attempts to “cut across diverse social and political interests and address many of the struggles within the current scene.” Logical works are not limited by their “borders” as single text, historical troubles or disciplines, and the critical own personal connections to what is analyzed and described. Henry Giroux and others write in their “Dalhousie Revise” manifesto that cultural studies practitioners are ‘resisting intellectuals’ who see what they do as “an emancipator project” as it erodes the traditional corrective divisions in most institutions of higher educational. For students, this sometimes means that a professor might make his or his own political analysis part of the training, which of course, can direct to problems. But this kind of criticism, like feminism, is an engaged rather than a removed activity.

2.   Cultural Studies is politically engaged:

                 The cultural critics see themselves as “Oppositional” not only within their individual discipliner but to many of the power structures of society at huge. The cultural critics question inequalities within power structures and try to find out the models for reformation relationships among the dominant and “minority” of “Subaltern” discourses. The meaning and individual subjectivity are culturally constructed, they can thus be reconstructed. This type of idea, taken to a Philosophical extreme, demise the autonomy of the individual whether an actual person or a character in literature, a rebuttal of the traditional humanistic “Great man” or “Great Book” theory and a transfer of esthetics and culture from the ideal realms of taste and sensibility into the arena of a whole society’s everyday life as it is constructed.

3. Cultural studies denies the separation of “high” and “low” or elite and popular culture.

                            In these days cultural critics work to remove the term culture to include mass culture, whether popular, folk, or urban. Jean Belldrillard, Andreas Huyssen and some other critics of cultural studies argue that after World War II the difference among high low and mass culture collapsed. They look forward on other theorists like pierre Bourdieu and Dick Hebdige on how “good taste often only reflects prevailing social, economic and political power bases.”

              For example, the descriptions of India that were circulated during the colonial rule of British raj by writes like Rudyard Kipling seem innocent, but reveal and entrenched imperialist argument for transparent superiority and worldwide domination of transparent superiority and worldwide domination of other races, especially Asians wherever British or French or any other whoever ruled the colonist tried to show their culture superior. But race along was not the matter for the British raj: money was also another determining factor. Thus, drawing also upon the ideas of French Gistorian Michel de Certeam, cultural critics examine.

“The practice of everyday life”, studying literature as an anthropologist would, as a phenomenon of culture, including a culture’s economy. Cultural critics explain ‘what’ is produced and how various productions narrate to one another. They do not determine to find out which one is the best work. Their aim is to expose the political economic reasons ‘why’ a confident cultural product is more valued at certain times than others.

Changing of boundaries among disciplines high and low can make cultural studies just plain fun. Some of these examples are the given titles.

The birth of captain Jach Sparrow :

An Analysis,

Disney’s pirates of the Caribbean: The curse o the Blach Pearl (2003)

R.L. Stevenson’s long John Silver in ‘Treasure Island’ (1881)

Keith Richard’s eye makeup.

4. Cultural studies analyzes not only the cultural work ,but also the means of production .

                Marxist critics have predictable the importance of such paraliterary questions such as –

‘Who supports a given artist?’

‘Who publishes his or her books, and how are these books distributed’?

Who buys books?

For that matter, who is literate and who is not?

             A well-known examination of literary production is Janice Radway’s study of the America romance (novel) and its readers, “Reading the Romance: women, patriarchy and popular literature, which demonstrates the textual effects of the publishing industry’s decisions effects of the publishing industry’s decisions about books that will reduce its financial risks.”

              One more contribution is the collection ‘Reading in America which is edited by Cathy N. Davidson, which includes essays on literacy and gender in colonial New England, urban magazine audiences in eighteenth – century New York city, the impact upon reading of such technical immolation as cheaper eyeglasses, electric lights, and trains, the book – of the month club and how written and texts go through fluctuations of popularity and canonicity. Thus we can say that literature is not divide from our past, present and future.’

Cultural studies joins subjectivity means culture in relation to individual lives with ‘engagement’ a direct approach to aggressive social malpractices. The practitioners of cultural studies deny ‘humanism’ or ‘the humanities’ as universal categories. The practioners attempt for what they might call ‘social - reason’, which often differ the goals and values of humanistic and democratic ideals.

                 Now, let us see what difference does a cultural studies approach make for the student? First of all, it is more and more clear that by the year 2050 the United States would be what demographers call a majority minority population; by this one has to understand that the present numerical majority of ‘transparent’, ‘Caucasian’ and Anglo will be the minority Americans, particularly with the dramatically growing numbers of Latina residents, mostly Mexican ameucans.

                                  Gerald Graff and James Phelan absolve,

“It is a common prediction that the culture of the next century will put a premium on people’s ability to deal productively with conflict and cultural difference, learning by controversy is sound training for citizenship in that future.”

              To the enquiry “why teach the controversy?” they noted that today a student can go from one class in which the values of western culture are never questioned to the next class where western culture is portrayed as hope lessee compromised by racism, sexism and homophobia; professors can acknowledge these difference and encourage students to contract a conversation for themselves as “the most exciting part of their education.”

                 All the culture taken as  the same culture in cultural studies like western culture, minority culture so we have to drive the tendency of mix culture and the understand  of every culture is become an central thing in a cultural studies.

Literary Theory & Criticism

         A Glossary of Literary Terms

  

New Criticism:

            The majority remarkable movement in 20^th century criticism .Which effected a total alteration , as it were of the control of English studies goes by the name of New Criticism .The new emphasis that was given to criticism earned the title ‘new’ for it .T.S.Eliot wielded a grand deal of influence among his generation .When his The Sacred Wood came out, it  progress a trend in criticism, generally descriptive then, which came to be called New Criticism. It different a prevailing interest of scholars ,critics and teachers of that era in the biographies of authors , in the social context of literature, and in literary history by insisting that the right concern of literary criticism is not with the external circumstance or effects or historical position of a work, but with a detailed consideration of the work itself as an independent entity. New Criticism had become an established in American college and even in high schools . New Criticism had to fight solid against a hostile atmosphere that prevailed in academic institutions and exposed the weakness in applying biology, psychology , economics or sociology to literary studies .

                  New Criticism balmy the readers against critical practices which distract attention from the poem itself .In analyzing and evaluating a particular work, they eschew reference to the biography and temperament and personal experience of the author, to the social condition at the time of its creation, or to its psychological and moral effects on the readers, they also tend minimize recourse to the place of the work in literary forms and subject matter. Because of its focus on the literary work in isolated from its attendant circumstances and effects  , the New Criticism is often classified as a type of critical formalism.

            The New Critics continue that their interpretations are based entirely on the context and the language of the text . Hence , their critical practice goes by the name ‘intrinsic criticism’ .This means that their criticism exists inside the confines of the text .every other methods are called ‘extrinsic’ , because they go outside the text for the tools they want to interpret the text. New Criticism also focusing  on the text. They have contributed extremely to the widening of the audience for reading poetry. Mostly New Criticism is founded on the premise that the text is an auto telic art fact   .It is complete and wholesome in itself , and it exists for its own sake .Its connection with the world beyond itself is not of much interest to the New Critic .

             The hostility to New criticism is most effectively and memorably expressed by Geoffrey Hartman in his essay,’ Beyond Formalism’ in these words ,

“There is good reason why many in this country as wellas Europe, have voiced a suspicion of Anglo-Saxon formalism.”

             Every one said and ended, the New Criticism have much to advance literary criticism, and the understanding of literary form. Walter Sutton succinctly sums up the contribution of New Criticism in the following words:

  “Their sophistication, intelligence and information sensibilities are apparent in many excellent and stimulating essay. When achievements are sets against limitation , one is impressed by the thought of what the New Criticism might have accomplished with a less hermetic theory.”

Modernism and Post modernism:

                The term modernism is usually used to identity new and distinctive features in the subjects , forms , concept, and styles of literature .The specific features signified by ‘mordenism’ differ with the user , but many critics agree that it involves a deliberate and radical break with some of the tradition bases not only of western art , but of western culture in general. central intellectual precursors of modernism , in this sense , are thinkers who had questioned the certainties that had supported traditional modes of social organization , religion and morality and also traditional ways of conceiving the human self thinkers such as Freud and James G.Frazer, whose twelve volume ‘The Golden Bough’stressed’ the connection between central Christian tenets and pegan , often barbaric , myth and rituals .

              In 1922 alone was signalized by the appearance of such monuments of modernist improvement as James Joyce’s ‘Ulysses’ .Virginia Woolf’s ‘Jacob’s Room’, T.S.Eliot’s ‘The West Land’ .Major works of modernist fiction , follow Joyce’s ‘Ulysses and his even more radical Finnegan Wake subvert the basic conventions of earlier prose fiction by breaking up the narrative continuity, departing from the standard ways of representing characters, and violating the traditional syntax and lucidity of narrative language by the use of stream of consciousness and other inventive modes of narration. Among other European and American writers who are central reprentatives of modernism are the novelist Thomas Mann, Franz Kafka , Dorothy Richardson and W B Yeats , Marianne Moore  and Bertolt Brecht .

          Modernism ‘s well-known feature is the phenomenon called the avant-garde ,that is a small , self conscious group of artists and authors who intentionally carry out, in Erza Pound’s phrase, “make it new”. Avant- garde artist signify themselves as ‘alienated’ from the established order, against which they assert their own autonomy , a prominent aim is to shock the sensibilities of the conservative reader and to challenge the norms and pieties of the dominant bourgeois culture .Renyo Poggioli, The Theory of the Avant-garde so its distinctive culture formation , the avant- garde .

          Post modernism applied to the literature and art in the 1950s and 1960s, when the effect on Western morale of the first world war were greatly exacerbated by the  experience of Nazi totalitarianism and mass extermination .Postmodernism involves not only a continuance , sometimes carried to an extreme, of the counter traditional experiments of modernism, but also varied attempts to break away from modernist forms which had , certainly , become in their turn conventional , as well as to overthrow the elitism of modernist ‘high art’ by recourse for models to the ‘mass culture’ in film, television , newspaper cartoons and popular music. The work of postmodern literature by Samuel Beckett, roland barthes,   other blend literary genres culture and stylists levels, the serious and the playful, that they oppose classification according to traditional literary rubric.

           Postmodernists consider that the world is no longer governed by traditional authorities that is, by governments , organizations of science and education , religious institutions etc. Instead , they argue that multinational capitalism , cyber technology, media, consumerism, and globalization are the working forces of the world today .Postmodernists in literature and the arts has parallels with the movement known as post structuralism in linguistic and literary theory, post structuralists undertake to undermine the foundations of language in order to demonstrate that its seeming meaningfulness dissipates, for a rigorous inquirer, into a play of conflicting indeterminacies or else undertake to show that all forms of culture discussion are manifestations of the reigning ideology , or of the relations and construction of power, in contemporary society .Some postmodernist developments in literature, Beat writers, new novel, performance poetry.

Postcolonial:

            Postcolonialism is the political and cultural study of societies free from colonial rule. The effort has obvious relevance to the tradition work of history, but because of the strangeness of the colonial situation , postcolonialism also bears upon common issues of race, class, education, the west and capitalism. Colonialism was not just a simple suppression and exploitation of native peoples. Though motivated by economic motives, colonialism also entailed impressive the colonists’ language and culture upon the local populace.  Postcolonial studies sometimes also encompass aspects of British literature in the 18^th and 19^th centuries, viewed through a perspective that reveals the ways in which the social and economic life represents in that literature was tacitly underwritten by colonial development.

              The negative response of the “master narrative” of Western imperialism in which the colonial others is not only subordinated and marginalized, but in effect deleted as a culture agency and its replacement by a counter narrative in which the colonial culture fight their way back into a word history written by Europeans. A main part in the postcolonial outline is to disestablish Eurocentric norms of literary and artistic values, and to expand the literary canon to include colonial and postcolonial writers .Postcolonial scholarship also studies forms of imperialism other than European , with the domination of some southern-hemisphere groups or nations by other southern-hemisphere group or nations .this rethinking of empire has brought the United State into focus as an object postcolonial nation. In current scholars in postcolonial studies have turned their notice to identities in a globalized world where large group of people have, for various reason , left their homelands , producing diasporas, population flow and émigré groups .Here Modernity at Large : Cultural Dimension of globalization . Ania Loomba provides an indication of the field in Postcolonialism .

            Finally in this way  , postcolonialism focuses on the text, but has a great ambition to convey the experience through the eyes of the colonized individual , not the eyes of the colonizer . To postcolonial critics ,this is a last act of liberation from the colonizer .

      

Diaspora:

  The term Diaspora means home sickness. Most early on thought of Diaspora were confidently fixed in a conceptual ‘home land’. They were worried with a paradigmatic case or a small number of care cases. The paradigmatic case was, of course, the Jewish Diaspora and some dictionary definitions of Diaspora until newly did not simply illustrate but defined the word with respect to that case.

         The first development of the use of the phrase extended it to other similar cases, such as the American and Greek Diasporas. More recently, it has been useful to emigrant groups that go on their connection in their homeland from overseas, such as the category of long-distance nationalists identified by Benedict Anderson. Brubaker notes that Albanians, Hindu, Indian, Irish, Kashmiri, Kurds, Tamils, Palestinians have been conceptualized as Diasporas in this sense. Furthermore and social migrants who maintain affectional and socialites with a homeland” have also been described as Diasporas.

Feminist Criticism:

          Feminist criticism was not inaugurated, but after long struggle for the credit of Women’s cultural roles and achievement , and for Women’s social and political rights, clear by such books as John Stuart Mill’s ‘The Subjection of Women, and the American Margaret fuller’s ‘ Woman in the 19^th century .Greatly of feminist literary criticism continues in our time to be organized with the movement by political Feminist for social , legal and cultural freedom and equality . When reading as a woman and responding to the way woman is presented in literature . In a world for all time give response of male and condition of woman is not good .As writer and as critic  woman present her ideas in her own way, but the problems of female language .feminist criticism may be concerned with the history , themes, genres and structures of literature by woman .

               In American, modern feminist criticism was inaugurated by Mary Ellmann’s skillful and witty discussion , in ‘Thinking about Women ‘ and also the offensive stereotypes of women in literature written by men, and also about alternative and subversive sign that happen in some writing by women .Modern feminist criticism in America, England, France and other countries is not a unitary theory or procedure .The basic view is that Western civilization is pervasively Patriarchal that is , it is male centered and controlled , and is organized and conducted in such a way as to inferior women to men in all cultural domains familial, religious, political , economic , social, legal and artistic .The more claim is that this patriarchal ideology pervades those writing which have been traditionally measured great literature, and which until recently have been written mainly by men for men. Typically, the most highly regarded literary works focus on male protagonist like , Hamlet , Tom Jones, Ulysses, Frankenstein etc. These males, the female characters , when they play a role , are marginal and subordinate, and either as opposite and subservient to ,or in conflict to desires and enterprises .

            Though many feminist critic have decried the literature written by men for its description of women as marginal and subservient to men’s interests and emotional needs and fears  some of them have also indentified male writers who in their view, have managed to rise above the sexual prejudices of their time satisfactorily to  understand and represent the cultural pressures that have shaped the characters of women and forced upon them their negative or subsidiary social roles .

    Psychoanalytical criticism:

             Psychological literary criticism has come to be Psychoanalytic Criticism, whose basis and measures were established by Freud. Freud had developed the dynamic form of psychology that called ‘Psychoanalysis’ as a method for the analysis and therapy of neuroses, but soon extended it to account for many developments and practices in the history of civilization, including conflict, mythology and  religion as well as literature and the other arts .Psychological criticism deals with a work of literature primarily as an expression, in an indirect and fictional form , of the condition of mind and the structure of personality of the individual author .Here also present unconscious , according to Freud, “are residual trace of prior stage of psychosexual development , from earliest infancy onward, which have been outgrown , but remain as ‘fixations’ in the unconscious of the adult” .In 1920 Freud ‘s theory was elaborated and developed but not very altered, by later developments in his theory of mental structures and processes .There development of three function the Id , the Superego and the ego. Freudian critics, in a form suggested by Freud’s later writing , on the role of ‘ego psychology’ in elaborating the manifest content and artistic from of a work , intentionally manage to mediate between the conflicting demands of the id , the superego, and the limits imposed by realism.

New historicism:

         New historicisms attend primarily to the historical and culture conditions of its production, its meanings, its effects and also of its later critical interpretations and evaluations. This is earlier kind of literary scholarship , for the views and practices of the new historicists differ markedly from those of earlier scholars who had adverted to social and intellectual history as a ‘background’ against which to set a work of literature as an independent entity, or had viewed literature as a ‘reflection’ of the worldview characteristics of a period. New historicists conceive of a literary text as ‘situated ‘ within the totality of the institutions, social practices and discourse that constitute the culture of a particular time and place and with which the literary text interacts as both a product and a producer of cultural codes.

             Louis Montrose described the new historicism as “a reciprocal concern with the historicity of texts and the textuality of history.” That is, history is conceived to be not a set of fixed, objective facts but, like the literature with which it interacts a text that itself needs to be interpreted .A number of historicists claim also that these cultural and ideological representations in texts serve mainly to reproduce and propagate the complex power structures of domination and subordination which characterize a given society.

              New historicists maintain the distinction between literary and nonliterary works, as well as between major and lesser works of literary artistry. As Stephen Greenblatt has said,” Major works of art remain centrally important , but they are jostled now by an array of other texts and images” .

Ecocriticism:

            Ecocriticism shortened form of ‘ecology’ the science that investigates of all forms of plant and animal life with all other with physical habitats. Here critical writing find out the relation between literature and the biological and physical environment. This literary form was basically initiated in England by Gilbert transparent ’s extremely popular ‘Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne’ his close and affectionate observations of wildlife and the natural setting in a particular area of rural England .The middle 19^th century Thoreau and other writers in America and England were pay thought to the threats to the environment by urbanization and industrialization.

            In the 20^th century the  warning by scientist and conservationists improved , two particularly important books were Aldo leopold’s ‘A sand County Almanac’ its attention to the ominous poverty of the environment  and Rachel Carson’s ‘Silent Spring ‘ , concerning the devastation inflicted by newly developed chemical pesticides on wildlife , both on land and in water .Finally than wild spread concern that the earth was in an environmental crisis ,brought on by the industrial and chemical pollution of the ‘biosphere’ and explosion of the human population that exposed to exceed the capacity of the earth to maintain it.

           In this environment of critics that Ecocriticism was inaugurated. It had become quickly growing field of literary study with his  own group, its own journal. Many Ecocriticism writings maintain to be oriented toward heightening their readers’ consciousness and even toward provocative them to social and political action, but other movement directed toward achieving social and political justice. Some environmental critics continue that the ecological crisis by the rejection , in the West, of the Judeo –Christian religion and culture with its anthropocentric view that human beings, because they possess souls. There are many anthologies of nature writing, representative recent ones are ‘The Norton Book of Nature Writing’, John Elder , ‘literature of Nature: An International Sourcebook .The Romantic period of the early 19^th century was the turning point in the long Western tradition of human transcendence and control over nature.

Queer Theory:

              Queer theory is frequently combined area of gay and lesbian studies , with the theoretical writing about all modes of difference as cross dressing and transsexuality from society’s normative model of sexual identity and activities .The term “queer” was firstly derogatory , used to stigmatize male and female same sex love as deviant and unnatural, it has been adopted by gays and lesbians themselves as a noninvidious term to recognize a way of life and area for scholarly inquiry. Teresa de Jagose, ‘Queer Theory :Lesbian and gay Sexualities.

               A numeral example of queer theorists, adopted the deconstructive mode of dismantling the key binary oppositions of Western culture, such as male or female, natural or unnatural and heterosexual or homosexual. Later theorists such as Eve Sedgwick and Judith Butler undertook to invert the standard hierarchical opposition by which homosexuality is marginalized and made unnatural , which the supposed normatively of heterosexuality is based on the suppression and same sex want and relationships . Queer reading has become the term for interpretive activities that undertake to subvert. For queer theory now devoted a lot of magazine in the field also has been established curriculum of the humanities and social science. Karla Jay and Joanne Glasgow, eds., Lesbian Text and Contexts: Radical Revisions.

Structuralism:

         Structuralism is certain developments in linguistics and anthropology. This style of criticism is part of French Structuralism, inaugurated in the 1950s by the cultural anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss, who analyzed on the form of Saussure’s linguistics model, he examined the customs and conventions of some culture with a view of arriving at the grammar culture .Structuralism cuts across the traditional corrective areas within and between the humanities by responsibility to provide an objective account of all social and cultural practices. The primary attention of the structuralism like that of Saussure is not in the culture parole but in language. That is not any particular culture as it provides the structure  and rules of the universal system .

            Literary studies , Structuralism criticism conceives to be second order signifying system that uses the first order structural system of language as it medium. Structuralist  critics apply a selection of linguistic concept  to the analysis of literary text, there difference between phonemic and morphemic. Structuralism is in opposition to mimetic criticism and to expressive criticism, so the view that literature is a mode of communication between author and readers.

           In the view of structuralism , literary work becomes a text , that is  a mode of writing constituted by a play of domestic elements according to specifically literature conventions and codes. The structuralism enterprise , in the exact form and complete pretensions and other modes of post structural theories, which subverted the scientific claims of structuralism . The theory of structuralist that was based on the linguistics of Saussure a theory that Barthes applied not only to literature but also to decoding, by reference to an original signifying system , many aspects of popular culture. Structuralist premises and procedures, continue to be deployed in a number of current enterprise and particularly in the semiotic analysis of cultural phenomena, in stylistic and in the formal structures that in their combination and constitute the plots in novels .In poetry  narrative prose, is Jonathan Culler, structuralist poetics : also Robert Scholes, Structuralism in Literature: An Introduction.

Alankara School:

          Sanskrit is a extremely scientific language. It is brilliant with musical and rhythmic elements, in its sound pattern .It is also overcome of diversities arising from the mono-syllabic meaning  , meaning of the stem and suffix, multi meaning of words etc .All these modes and varieties of ornamental of sound and sense have been careful define and analyzed .

          The term ‘alankar , in Sanskrit stands for the principle of poetic beauty itself, in which sense of this general meaning , the entire science of criticism is so named Alankarashastra .Alankar in a limited sense also mean any trope or figure of speech that adorns a literary composition. There is feature treatment of such figure of speech from Bharata, the author of Natyashastra to Mammata concerning their definition , classification and number, different between the outstanding that are with poetic beauty and figure of speech, as also the situation of figure in the theories of rasa .

          The earliest works to deal with the figure in the encyclopedic   Natyasasta. In this treatise the beautiful speech patterns the Vachikbhinaya, one of the four abhinayas , which understand the entire field of ancient Sanskrit drama .In the Natyasastra only four figures Upama (simile), Rupak (metaphor), Dipaka(illuminator), Yamaka (rhyme) .A arrangement of figure that has been accepted by all alankarikas of those based on sound and sense. In essential we understand alankar present with point for all semantic examination. A correct appreciation of the position of early theorists in regard to alankar is necessary to understand their idea of shabda and artha which forms the starting point for all semantic analysis.

     Riti School:

            Riti is a theory of language of literature. It first time appear in Bharata’s Natyasastra , developed it into a theory , as the theory of visista padaracana riti .In the riti also attached other words like marga and vrtti .later on Anandavardhana famous style on the basis of the use of particular kinds of compounds .Mammata designates the different modes as vrttis .Here also present unusual theorist and categories like, in theorist Dandin , Vamana and Kuntaka at the side of in categories vaidarbhi, gaudiya, pancali etc.

               Riti is connect with, themes, achieve on the hearers and sentiment .Viswanatha considers proper group of language as riti words and pharases have to be correctly selected and organized in poetry and this is necessary for rasa and bhavas .Style of riti is outstanding .But riti is much more than just diction .Essentially it is a theory that handles the psychophonetic suitability of language for speaker .

Vakroti School:

       Vakroti claims that the characteristic property of literary language is its markedness . It deviates in particular ways from ordinary language in its form and in its creation of meaning Kuntaka made vakrokti a occupied fledge theory of literariness .His meaning of vakrokti is both meaning and meaning marked by artistic revolve of speech.

        Vakroti classified in six way, syallables or their arrangement , in inflected forms of substantives , in the base substantives in topic or sections, in sentences, in figure of speech. The three margas , style , sukumara, vicitra and madhyama, as plans of expression are to be treated as example vakrokti. Here also defined class of vakroti, splendor, sweetness, perspicuity, grace, classically. The principle of vakroti has a affinities with modern formalist theories of literature which measured the language of literature .

Dhvani School:

             The term dhvani is suggested by the grammarian’s principle of ‘sphota’ . which means it bears .The words and their sense that are capable of manifesting the suggested sense are able  called dhvani. Thus, indicative words and senses are called dhvani. The further activity of the speaker involved in imparting to the sounds produced by him in a manner or shape such as fast, slow etc is called dhvani.

             From the first verse of the Dhvanyaloka it is quite clear that the theory of dhvani had a long course of growth in as much as it was given a due consideration by his predecessors and it existed even at the time of Anadavardhana himself in various forms, handed down , as he asserts in endless tradition although it may not have been explained as Abhinavagupta, adds in his gloss, in particular books .This implies without doubt that the school excited from a very early time, but it goes the credit if Anandavardhana to ore sent it in a systematic and scientific form .

         The theory of dhavni marks a major turn in the onward journey of literary movement , which proclaims dhvani as the essence of poetry and vyanjana as the middle of literary creation and communication .The emergence of the theory of suggestion therefore , constitutes a major event in the Sanskrit literary criticism. It modify the course of the literary current from outward to the inner . It is in this sense that Anandavardhana declares his school as different from the famous system , which has not effort to demonstrate traditional authorize behind the idea of suggestion. The significance of Anandavardhana ‘s typology of verbal suggestion needs to be set out clearly. If we are able to explain how indirect meanings arise thoroughly, we are able to maintain that all probable meaning are natural in the text all that the reader does is to develop this system of verbal symbolism to create a particular meaning.

            There are two main divisions of dhvani the one where the expressed sense being stultified suggests some ideas and is called ‘avivakshitavachta’ and the other where the expressed sense, thought intentionally  to convey some ideas as leading to something else, suggests some other ideas. It is termed as ‘vivakashitanya paravachya’. The ‘avivakshitavachta’ type of dhvani may be illustrated by the following

         “   Only three type of men can pluck the golden flowers

     Of this earth, viz , the brave , the learned and the parasites “.

The victorian Literature

                 Study of Victorian Age

                The Victorian era was age full of changes; the most important was the supremacy of Queen Victoria, who ascended the throne in 1837 and ruled the British Empire, restoring strength to the crown. Her control is considered one of the most wealthy in her time, which finally became this symbol of a period that took its name, "the Victorian Era".

     Napoleonic Wars completed in 1815, and meanwhile France and the

Revolution changed Europe; Great Britain became the main power of the World. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, Britain would stay as the leading world power, far above any other. Britain controlled so many areasaround the world that the sun always shown in one of them.

       Victoria reigned this great and open kingdom during sixty-three years. She was only eighteen years old when she was crowned. Victoria sheltered the cosmopolitan interests that predominate the era and cultivatedinternational relationships between various dynastic families of Europe.

The British pound became the currency par brilliance in world markets; the British fleet was the maximum authority in overseas; factories and the numerous railroad tracks were the example to follow for all the other powers that imitated the British Industrial Revolution.

      The transform in the way of production (before with peasants and craftsmen and now with workmen) shortly revolutionized the society and the economy of the world. for the moment the development of the railway and other industries promoted the new way of production; Queen Victoria governed her monarchy bravely influencing the entire world.

Her period of influence, became a symbol of the consolidation of the British Empire, was see of the rise of the middle-class and characterized by a morality deeply conservative. With Queen’s Victoria reign, England agreed out a process of electoral and social reforms.

            Major Victorian literature in any suitable and complete manner has proven difficult for critics ever while the nineteenth century came to a close. The movement generally comprises the years from 1830 to 1900, still there is full deviation about even this simple point. The name given to the period is borrowed from the royal matriarch of England, Queen Victoria, who sat on throne from 1837 to 1901. One has difficulty determining with any truth where the Romantic Movement of the early nineteenth century leaves off and the Victorian Period begins because these traditions have so many aspects in general. The same, identifying the point where Victorianism gives way completely to Modernism is no simple task. Literary periods are never the separate, self-contained realms which the anthologies so suggest. Rather, a literary period more closely resembles a rope that is frayed at both ends. Many threads make up the rope and work mutually to form the whole artistic and cultural setting. The Victorian writers exhibited some well-established behavior from previous eras, while at the same time almost arts and letters in new and interesting direction. Certainly, some of the later Victorian novelists and poets are nearly indistinguishable from the Modernists who followed shortly after that. In spite of the hesitation of terminology, there are some actual statements that one can make as regards the nature of Victorian literature and the intellectual world which nurtured to literature.

             In this age also material development  .It was an age living with new activities .There was a revolution in commercial enterprise ,owing to the grand increase of available markets , and as a result of this  huge advance in the use of mechanical device .On the other side of this picture of commercial extension we see the dreadful social condition of the new industrial cities, the squalid slums, and the development few to cheap labor , the painful fight by the progressive few to introduce social legislation and the slow expansion of the authorization .

             Here also comes intellectual development .There can be little hesitation that in many cases material wealth produced a hardness of irritation and an impatience of projects and ideas that brought no return in hard cash , Yet it is to the credit of this age that intellectual activities were so different .In addition, popular education became a practical object  .This is its turn produced a new hunger for intellectual food and resulted in a great amplify in the production of the press and of other more strong species of literature .

In the Victorian age present many features ,yet in numerous we can specify.

           Its Morality- practically all observers of the Victorian age are struck by this severe deference to the conventions .To a later age these seem ridiculous .To a great extent the new morality was a natural revolt against the grossness of the later Regency and the influence of the Victorian court was all in its favour .In literature it is sufficiently reflected .Tennyson is the most conspicuous example in poetry , crating the priggishly complacent Sir Galahad and King Arthur ,Dickenson ,possibly the most representative of the Victorian novelists took for his model the old picaresque novel ,but it is almost laughable to observe his anxiety to be moral .

      The Revolt –Many writers protested against the deadening effects of the conventions .carlyle and Matthew Arnold in their different accents ,were loud in their denunciations Thackeray never tried of satirizing the snobbishness of the age and Borrowing’s and the smooth self- satisfaction of the Tennysonian school .As the age proceeded the response strengthened .In the poetry pre-Raphaelites ,led by Swinburne and William Morris ,proclaimed no maarlity but that of the artist’s consider for his art .By the vigour of his methods Swinburne horrified the timorous and made himself rather ridiculous in the eyes of sensible people .

       Intellectual Developments – The literary invention was certainly affected by the new idea in science ,religion and politics .we can identify the influence of such a work in Tennyson’s In Memoriam ,in Matthew arnold’s meditative poetry and in the works of Carlyle .In religious and ethical thought the ‘Oxford Movement’ as it was called was the most noteworthy advance .This movement had its resource among the young and eager thinkers of the old university and was headed by the great Newman  ,who finally joined the church of Rome .As religious indication it marked the extensive discontent with the existing bailiffs of the Church of England . 

         The New Education – The instruction Acts, making a sure measure of instruction compulsory, quickly produced an huge rading public. The cheapening of printing and paper improved the demand for books , so that the production was multiplied .The most popular form of literature was the novel ,and the novelists responded with a will .Much of their work was of a high standard , so much so that it has been asserted by competent critics that the middle years of the 19^th century were the richest in the full history of the novel .        

            International Influences – Through the 19^th century the whole interaction among American and European writers was remarkably fresh and strong .subject nations in particular the Italians, were a sympathetic theme for prose and verse .

         The Achievement of the age – With all its immense production ,the age produced no supreme writer .It exposed no Shakespeare ,no Shelly ,nor a Byron or Scott .The common literary level was nevertheless, very high and it was an age moreover , of large intellectual horizons  ,noble endeavour and brilliant aspirations .

The poets of The Victorian Age:

Alfred Lord Tennyson:

    Tennyson was English poet often regarded as the leader representative of the Victorian age in poetry. When Tennyson was seventeen years old he collaborated with his elder brother Charles in poems by ‘Two Brothers ‘.The volume is  a minor one , but in the light of his later work we can already recognize a little of the Tennysonian  metrical ability and expressive power .In this contains such notable poems as’ The Lady of Shalott’ ,The Lotus _Easter and The Place of Art in which we see the Tennyson system approaching perfection .In 1842 he produced two volumes of poetry that position him once and for all among the grater poets of his day .

His career are marked primarily by much longer poems .The Princess is a serio comic effort to handle the theme that was then famous as the ‘new woman’ .for the sake of his story Tennyson imagines a ladies academy with a defiantly intellectual princess at the head of it .For a space a tragedy seems imminent, but in the end all is well, for the princess in married to the innocent hero . The poem is in blank verse  , but interspersed are several singularly beautiful lyrics . The humour is serious, but many of the imagery are as rich and wonderful as any Tennyson ever attempted.

In poem ‘In Memoriam ‘caused a great strit when it first appeared .It is a very long series of meditations upon the death of Arthur Henry Hallam  .Tennyson brooded over the subject for years and upon this elegiac theme  he imposed many meditation on life and death  ,showing how these subject were affected by the new theories of the day .For the first and possibly the only  ,time Tennyson feelings were moved and troubled .The result was the  most deeply emotional ,and probably the greatest  ,poetry he ever produced .The poem is adorned with many beautiful sketches of English scenery and the metre now called the in this poem –and which is quite rare is deftly managed .

              With faith that comes of self-control,

              The truths that never can be proved

              Until we close with all we loved,

              And all we flow from soul in soul.

Tennyson issued a severe of Idylls of the King . Many doting admirers saw in the Idylls an allegory of the soul of man. These Idylls are sacred in tears and are dedicated to the memory of one who loved them as if he had seen his own picture in them. He was a man who seemed in all his qualities and fine behavior to be none other than Arthur's ideal knight. Now he is gone, and England prays that his sons will be as noble as he was and will be worthy of their father, Albert the Good. The queen should reign alone, in brilliance and in solitude, for he is gone, but she is royal and will suffer. In his closing lines to the queen, the poet writes:
                      His love, unseen but felt, o'ershadow thee,                       The love of all thy sons encompass thee,                       The love of all thy daughters cherish thee,                       The love of all thy people comfort thee,                       Till God's love set thee at his side again!

The other poem of any length is Enoch Arden  , which became the most popular of all and create its way in translation into foreign language .The plot is cheap enough , dealing with a seaman  ,who returns and finding his wife happily married another man sorrowfully retires without making  himself known .

With the shorter poems like ,’Locksley Hall Sixty Years After’ and’ The Death of Enone’ .But in poem ‘Break ,Break ,Break ‘lyrical quality is rather uneven .Here he provide a background for the true lyrical strength of emotion .

Robert Browning :

                Robert Browning was English playwright and master of dramatic dialogue poetry .the future poet was educated semi-privately and from an early age he was free to follow his inclination toward studing unusual subjects. But in his work chief difficulty to reading him, because the obscurity of his style , which the critics of half a century ago held up to ridicule . He is led from one thing to another by his own mental associations, and forgets that the reader’s association may be of an entirely different kind. Browning is careless in his English and frequently clips his speech, giving us a serious of ejaculations .as we do not quite understand his processes of thought , we must stop between the ejaculations to trace out the connections . His allusions are often farfetched refer , ring to some odd scrap of information which he has picked up in his wide reading ,and the ordinary reader find it difficult to trace and understand them .His first famous work is ‘Pauline’ , an introspective . poem Pauline is a fragmentary poem about the unnamed narrator's inability to commit himself to poetry. His conception of poetry is vastly ambitious, its blueprint an apotheosized Shelley. Perhaps the very ambition makes failure inevitable, or perhaps he is right to analyze traits of vacillating weakness, vanity, over-egocentrism, over-self-analysis, insincere religiosity, insufficient love for others, and the rest.      
I have no confidence,                   So I will sing on—fast as fancies come                   Rudely—the verse being as the mood it paints.Pippa passes  of  Bowing’s simple but beautiful lyrics. The language is
Uncomplicated, simple descriptive statements unadorned by comparison andunveiled in allusion, yet dense with imagery and wonderfully evocation .

The year's at the spring, And day's at the morn; Morning's at seven; The hill-side's dew-pearled; The lark's on the wing; The snail's on the thorn; God's in his Heaven - All's right with the world! His method is to take a character at a moment of crisis and , by allowing him to talk , to reveal not only his present thoughts and feelings but his past history .dramatic Lyrics and dramatic Romance and Lyrics show this faculty being directed into the channel in which it was to achieve perfection that of the dramatic monologue .He produced his some of best work in ‘Men and Women’. .In 1864 saw the publication of his last really great volume, Dramatis personae.The remaining years of Browning ‘s long life saw the production of numerous further volumes of verse like ,’The Inn Album’ , ‘Fifine at the fair’, ‘The Two Poets of Croisic’, ‘Jocoseria’ .

Elizabeth Barrett Browning :

     

Elizabeth was  English poet  and her famous Sonnets ‘ The Portuguese ‘ .In 1844 Miss Barrett published her poems , which idea extraordinary public favor .Such poems as ‘The Cry of the Children’ ,which voice the objection of humanity against  child labor ,appealed tremendously to the readers of the age ,and this young woman’s fame as a poet temporarily overshadowed that of Tennyson and Browning .Her works are ‘The Seraphim and other Poems’ , sonnets from the ‘Portuguese’ ,. She also wrote many of her shorter pieces for magazines  ,the most important contributions being ‘The cry of the Cornhill’ .As a narrative poet Browning is a comparative failure for the in way , but she has power of a  sweet ,lucid and frequently passionate style .

Matthew Arnold :

        In the literature Arnold has occupied for many years an authoritative situation as critic and teacher, related to that held by Ruskin in the world of art .In his poetry he reflects the doubt of an age which witnessed the conflict between science and exposed faith  , but this men so different in sprit and methods , confronted the similar problems ,sought the equal ends ,and were dominated by the same moral honesty . Arnold’s literary work divides itself into three periods, which we may call the poetical , the critical and the practical .He had written poetry since  his school days, and his first volume ,’ The Strayed Reveller and Other Poems’. His chief works in critical period are the ‘Lectures On Translating Homer’ and the two volumes of ‘Essays in Criticism’ , which made Arnold one of the best known literary men in England .His well famous narrative poems ‘balder dead’ and ‘Sohrab and Rustum’.

Dante Gabriel Rossetti:

          Rossetti was painter and poet .He was also leader in the pre Raphaelite movement .He published his first work ‘ Hand and Soul’. In 1881 he published his Ballads and Sonnets , a remarkable volume containing with other poems ,’The Confession’, ‘The King Tragedy’ a masterwork of dramatic narrative and ‘The House of life’ ‘ a collection of one hundred  and one sonnets reflecting the poet’s love and loss.

William Morris:

         He created a great amount of poetry , and was one of the most conspicuous figures in mid- Victorian literature. Upon art, education , political, and social problems his great energy and powerful mind led him to take very decided views, amazing of an original nature .The bulk of Morries’s  poetry was during the first 45 years of his life .’The Defence of Guenevere’ and other poems shoes his love of beauty of colour, sound and scenery and his passion for the medieval .In structure the poems of this volume are often imperfect and in way they have an sudden roughness which is not seen in his later work .’The Life and Death of Jason’ a heroic poem on the familiar theme , is told in smooth, easy couplets and has the melancholy tone so ordinary  in Morris .The literary production of the second part of Morris’s life consisted mainly of prose romance, lecture, and articles. The best of his lectures are ‘Hopes and fears for art and ‘Signs of Change’.

Algernon Charles Swinburne:

               Swinburne is chronologically , the last of Victorian poets , an artistic technique having ideal command of all old English verse forms and a remarkable facility for inventing new he seems at the present time to rank  among the best in our literature .Here his poetical work  can be mentioned here ‘Songs beforeSunrise’, acollection of poems chiefly in praise of Italian liberty , a more and less successful attempt at Greek tragedy and ‘Tristram and Other Poems , anarrative of much passion and force, collected in the heroic couplet.

The Novelist  of the Victorian Age:

Charles Dickens:

               

Here Dickens ‘s life and work in contrast with that of the two great poets Tennyson and Browning were being educated for the life of literature and defended most kindly from the hardships of the world. In 1836 her ‘Pickwick’ was published , and life was changed as if a magician had waved his wand over him .Dickens was intense enough to understand his danger and his next novel ‘Oliver Twist’ had serious purpose of justifying the evils under which the poor were suffering. His next novel ‘Nicholas Nickleby’ and indeed in most of his remaining works. He presents different types of characteristics like blameless little child like Oliver’ than the horrible or grotesque foil like Squeers and the grandiloquent or broadly humours fellow like Sam weller.

William Makepeace Thackeray:

             In life of Thackeray number of years was investigative for a means of expression and wavered between verse and periodicals .The most significant of these are ‘The Yellowplush Corrspondence’ , contributed to ’Fraser’s Magazine’ and dealing with philosophy and experiences ‘The Book of Snobs’ which firstly appeared in punch as ‘The Snobs of England’.’The Memoirs of Barry’ Lyndon is a distinct advance  .’In Vanity Fair’ the genius of Thackeray reaches high water mark .

George Eliot:

           

She is more observably, more intentionally a preacher and moralizer than any of her great generation .All her novels try  ,  to show in individual the play of universal moral force .’Adam Bede’ was a full length novel. ’The Mill on the Floss’, the partly autobiographical story of ‘Maggie and Tom Tulliver’ is a affecting tragedy set in an authentic rural background .’Silas Marner: the Weaver of Raveloe’ is a shorter novel, which once more gives excellent pictures of village life .’Middle March ‘ , a study of provincial life , in which Eliot built up from the life of a great number of deeply studied characters suffer through their own blindness and folly and the theme is treated with a powerful and inevitable realism .Her last novel ‘Daniel Deronda’ is still more strongly colored by her preoccupation by moral problems.

Conclusion:

         

              Historically the age is extraordinary for the increase of democracy following the reform of 1832, for the spread of education among all classes, for the express development of the arts and science, for important mechanical creation, and for the enormous extension of the bounds of human knowledge by the discoveries of science .

So, on the one side it emphasizes truth as the only object of human effort and on the other side  , its first effect seems to be to discourage works of the imagination.